BARRIERS TO FOREIGN TRADE

BARRIERS TO FOREIGN TRADE

     In order to shelter home industries, foreign trade had been obstructed in various forms.

They in brief are:

1. Prohibition of imports or exports.

2. Custom duties.

3. Quotas.

4. Exchange control.

5. Preferential treatment.

6. Import monopolies.

7. Import levies.

1.      Import and export prohibition: The government of a country by law may totally ban the import or export of certain commodities for reasons of health or for promoting the growth of certain industries in the country for instance; when foot and mouth disease attacks cattle, the government totally prohibits the import of beef from that country.

2.      Custom duties or tariffs: Tariffs are the oldest form of protection. They are imposed on the import and export of commodities, when tariffs are imposed on the import of commodities, they are imposed on the export of commodities, they discourage exports and make the goods available for home producers. Tariffs or custom duties may be specific or ad-valoram. When tariff is based on weight, quantity or other physical characteristic of imported goods, they are called specific the duty is called ad-valoram when it based on value of the goods. Such a duty is fixed as percentage of the foreign or domestic valuation of imported goods.

3.      Exchange control: Exchange control implies the government regulations relating to buying and selling of foreign exchange. Under the system of exchange control, all exporters are required to surrender their claims on foreign exchange to the central bank of the country in exchange for domestic currency at the rate fixed by government. The government then allots the foreign exchange among the licensed importers. Exchange control may be resorted for correcting an adverse balance of payments or for protection home industry or foe conserving foreign resources or foe maintaining the exchange rate at a predetermined parity.

4.      Quotas: In order to reduce imports, the government of a country may restrict the total imports of a given commodity to a specified amount or specify the maximum amount of a commodity which can be imported from each producing country. When the total amount of goods to be imported is determined, the government then issues licenses for their import. This device of restricting imports is applied as an alternative to custom duties.

5.      Preferential Treatment: The government of country may give preferential treatment  in the rate of taxes to some of the countries. For instance, under the commonwealth preferential system exports have had, preferential treatment in U.K over goods from non-commonwealth countries. The granting of preferential treatment result in formation of trade blocks. The countries which are not giving preferential treatment impose high tariffs in relation to the goods of the discriminating countries. the international trade is thus hindered.

6.       Import monopolies: When the government of a country takes responsibility of importing all the commodities herself, we say the government has import monopolies.

Import licenses: Another barrier which restrict the import of goods from abroad is the import licenses. If the government of a country allows the import of foreign commodities to the licensed imports, the trade is very much brought under control. This method is adopted for curtailing imports and for the use of discrimination between goods and countries.

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CORRECTION OF DISEQUILIBRIUM IN THE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

CORRECTION OF DISEQUILIBRIUM IN THE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

        We have state earlier that country must obtain equilibrium in her balance of payments with other country in the long run. When the balance of payments is favourable, it can looked at with satisfaction from her point of view because the surplus will be invested abroad in securities. But if a country has deficit balance in perpetuity, it must be certified by taking necessary steps. The days of the gold standard are gone when the balance was corrected automatically under gold standard an active or passive balance accompanied by an inflow or outflow of gold was normally supposed to result in an expansion or contraction of the domestic money supply, and this expansion or contraction was expected to bring about a rise or fall in the level of domestic costs and prices tending in the latter, to discourage imports and stimulate exports. Gold flow, changes in the quantity of money, and changes in relative price levels, thus appeared as the principal factor in the mechanism of adjustment. But, now-a-days when every country is on inconvertible standard, steps are to be taken to correct the adverse balance of payments. The main methods adopted to cover a deficit in balance of payment of a country are as follows:

(i)   Rectifying the balance of trade: one of the major items which can adversely affect the balance of payment of a country is the excess of imports over exports. Inn case of a deficit of the balance of payments, a country must try to stimulate exports or discourage imports or do both. The exporters can encouraged by bringing down the level of costs in the country or by granting bounties or by giving concessions to industrialists and exporters. Imports can be restricted either by adopting quota system or by imposing duties or by reducing people’s disposable income or by higher taxation or by a reduced government expenditure or by total prohibitions etc.

(ii) Deflation: Deflation is another important weapon which is used to correct the unfavourable balance of payment. The currency authority may try to lower the price by reducing the quantity of money in circulation. If the country succeeds in bringing down the prices , it then becomes a good market to sell in. Exports are encouraged, and imports fall and thus the deficit gap is greatly reduced. This method when adopted is full of dangers. If by contracting supply of money, the prices are lowered, the rigid costs may not be brought down. Labour may oppose the reduction in the wages. This can lead to depression and unemployment in the country which may prove very dangerous. By 30%

(iii) Devaluation: devaluation is a remedy which is applied only in times of extreme crisis to correct the adverse balance of payments. Devaluation means the lowering of the exchange rate. This method like devaluation is adopted to cheapen exports and make imports dearer, devaluation, thus, raises exports and lowering imports. England devalued the value of pound from 4.03 dollars to 2.80 dollars, i.e. By 30% in September, 1949 to correct disequilibrium in her balance of payments. Pakistan first devalued its currency in 1955. The advantage with this method is that there is no need to reduce the money wages and the object is achieved. The disadvantage is that it shakes the people’s confidence in home currency.

(iv) Exchange control:  Exchange control is a very effective and useful method for correcting adverse balance of payment. Under this system, the government enforces a complete monopoly of buying and selling of foreign exchange in the foreign exchange market. The exporters are required to surrender their foreign exchange at fixed rates to the central bank. The central bank then rations out this foreign exchange among the licensed importers of essential commodities only. When imports are restricted to the available foreign exchange, the problem of adverse balance of payments is then greatly solved.

(v) International monetary fund: Deficit in the balance of payment can also be covered by obtaining assistance from international monetary fund. The IMF, which began its operation in march, 1941, helps member countries in maintaining equilibrium in the balance of payment. The international monetary fund has proved very helpful in promoting exchange stability and facilitating the settlement of international transactions.

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